Discuss about the Anti-Microbial Resistance

Anti-Microbial Resistance

Why in News?

Recently, four major multilateral agencies – Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), UN Environment Programme (UNEP), World Health Organization (WHO), and World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH), announced the launch of a priority research agenda to address the critical issue of antimicrobial resistance (AMR).

About Antibiotics and AMR

Antibiotics are medicines used to prevent and treat bacterial infections. Antibiotic resistance occurs when bacteria change in response to the use of these medicines. Bacteria, not humans, become antibiotic resistant. These bacteria may then infect humans and are harder to treat than non-resistant bacteria. Antimicrobial resistance is a broader term, encompassing resistance to drugs to treat infections caused by other microbes as well, such as parasites (e.g. malaria), viruses (e.g. HIV) and fungi (e.g. Candida).

Microorganisms that develop resistance to commonly used antimicrobials are referred to as superbugs.

 

The World Health Organization (WHO) lists AMR among top 10 threats for global health.

 

Antibiotics are chemical substances produced by microorganisms and fungi. When properly prepared, these substances can inhibit the growth of (or destroy) bacteria and other microorganisms.

First true antibiotic was discovered in 1928 by Scottish scientist Alexander Fleming.

 

Related Terms Antigens: Any substance that induces the immune system to produce antibodies against it. It can be a pathogen, chemicals, toxins or pollens etc. Antibodies: It is a protein that immune system produces in response to antigens.

 

Causes of AMR

Antibiotic resistance develops naturally in bacteria. However, our actions can increase resistance developing and spreading. This can happen:

• when human and animal health professionals over prescribe antibiotics
• when people don’t take antibiotics as directed
• due to poor hygiene and a lack of infection prevention and control e.g. not washing hands properly. Bacteria in water, soil and air for example, can acquire resistance following contact with resistant microorganisms.
• due to people travelling around the world, spreading resistant bacteria.

Causes of AMR in India

• Inappropriate consumption of broad-spectrum antibiotics is high because of changing prescription practice in the healthcare system due to the non-availability of a narrow spectrum of antibiotics.
• Inappropriate antibiotic use among the general public like Self-medication to avoid the financial burden.
  • Globally, India tops the list of countries with the highest antibiotic consumption, and highest AMR.
• Unrestricted drug manufacturing, marketing, and sales in India. (Over the counter sale)
• The large proportion of sewage is disposed of untreated into receiving water bodies, leading to gross contamination of rivers with antibiotic residues, antibiotic-resistant organisms.
• Use of antibiotics in animals.

 

Steps Taken by India

• To prevent the Over-the-counter sales of antibiotics, the central drug standard control organization (CDSO) prohibits medical stores from selling 24 key antibiotics without a doctor’s prescription.
• AMR surveillance network has been strengthened by establishing labs in State Medical College. 36 sites in 26 States/UTs have been included in this network so far.
• India’s Red Line campaign: Which demands that prescription-only antibiotics be marked with a red line, to discourage the over-the-counter sale of antibiotics– is a step forward.
• National action plan on containment of Antimicrobial Resistance (NAP-AMR) focusing on One Health approach was launched in April 2017 with the aim of involving various stakeholder ministries/departments. Delhi Declaration on AMR– an inter-ministerial consensus was signed by the ministers of the concerned ministries pledging their support in AMR containment.
• AMR Surveillance Network: ICMR has established AMR surveillance and research network (AMRSN) comprising 30 tertiary care hospitals, both private and government to generate evidence and capture trends and patterns of drug resistant infections in the country.
• AMR Research & International Collaboration: ICMR has taken initiatives to develop new drugs /medicines through international collaborations in order to strengthen medical research in AMR.

 

Global Effort

• Global Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance (GAP): Globally, countries committed to the framework set out in the Global Action Plan1 (GAP) 2015 on AMR during the 2015 World Health Assembly and committed to the development and implementation of multisectoral national action plans.
• Tripartite Joint Secretariat on Antimicrobial Resistance: Tripartite joint secretariat (FAO, OIE and WHO) has been established and is hosted by WHO to drive multi-stakeholder engagement in AMR.
• Interagency Coordination Group (IACG) on AMR: It was convened by the Secretary-General of the United Nations after the UN High-Level Meeting on Antimicrobial Resistance in 2016.
  • The IACG brought together partners across the UN, international organizations and individuals with expertise across human, animal and plant health, as well as the food, animal feed, trade to formulate a plan for the fight against antimicrobial resistance.
• World Antimicrobial Awareness Week (WAAW): WAAW was previously called the World Antibiotic Awareness Week. From 2020, it will be called the World Antimicrobial Awareness Week.
  • It is a global campaign that aims to raise awareness of antimicrobial resistance worldwide.
• Global Antimicrobial Resistance and Use Surveillance System (GLASS): WHO launched it  in 2015 to continue filling knowledge gaps and to inform strategies at all levels.
  • GLASS has been conceived to progressively incorporate data from surveillance of AMR in humans, surveillance of the use of antimicrobial medicines, AMR in the food chain and the environment.
• Global Antibiotic Research and Development Partnership (GARDP): A joint initiative of WHO and the Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi), GARDP encourages research and development through public-private partnerships.
  • By 2025, the partnership aims to develop and deliver five new treatments that target drug-resistant bacteria identified by WHO as posing the greatest threat.

 

What can be done?

AMR challenges cannot be understood or addressed separately from the triple planetary crisis – the crisis of climate change, the crisis of nature and biodiversity loss, and the crisis of pollution and waste, all of which are driven by unsustainable consumption and production patterns.

Environment plays a key role in development, transmission and spread of AMR. Therefore, the response must be based on a One Health approach, recognizing that humans, animals, plants and environment are interconnected and indivisible, at the global, regional, and local levels from all sectors, stakeholders, and institutions. Prevention is at the core of the action needed to halt the emergence of AMR and environment is a key part of the solution.

 

 

J&K Reorganisation and Reservation Bill

 

Why in news?

• The Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation (Amendment) Bill, 2023, and the Jammu and Kashmir Reservation (Amendment) Bill, 2023, were recently approved by the Lok Sabha.
• The objective of the Bill is to provide representation for individuals who became internal refugees and to allocate one seat in the Jammu and Kashmir Assembly for those who have been displaced from Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK)

 

About J&K Reservation Bill:

• The proposed amendment aims to modify Section 2 of the Jammu and Kashmir Reservation Act, 2004.
• The Jammu and Kashmir Reservation Act, 2004, originally granted reservations in employment and admissions to professional institutions for Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), and other socially and educationally backward classes.
• The amendment Bill suggests a shift in the terminology used to describe a specific group of individuals, replacing “weak and underprivileged classes (social castes)” with “other backward classes.

 

Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation (Amendment) Bill, 2023:

• The amendment aims to modify the 2019 Act and ensure representation in the Legislative Assembly for Kashmiri Migrants and displaced individuals from Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK).
• It proposes the nomination of two members from the Kashmiri migrant community, including one female nominee.
• Additionally, it grants the lieutenant governor the authority to nominate one representative for displaced persons from PoK to the Legislative Assembly.
• The bill suggests an increase in the total number of seats in the Jammu and Kashmir legislative assembly from 107 to 114. Among these, 7 seats are reserved for scheduled caste members, and 9 seats are allocated for legislators from scheduled tribes.
• According to the proposed legislation, 24 seats of the Assembly will remain vacant until the occupation in Pakistan-occupied Kashmir ceases.
• Consequently, the effective strength of the Assembly, currently at 83, is intended to be increased to 90 through the amendment

 

Who are Migrants?

Migrants are persons who migrated from the Kashmir Valley or any other part of the state of Jammu and Kashmir after November 1, 1989, and are registered with the Relief Commissioner.

 

Background:

• Preceding the Revocation of Article 370, Jammu and Kashmir had specific regulations for the delimitation of Lok Sabha and Assembly seats.
• Following the abrogation of Article 370 and the region’s transformation into a Union Territory, a Delimitation Commission was established in March 2020.
• This commission had the responsibility not only to delimit seats in Jammu and Kashmir but also in Assam, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh, and Nagaland, with the goal of completing the process within a year.
• Recently, the commission finalized its delimitation process, leading to an augmentation of Jammu and Kashmir’s legislative assembly seats from 107 to 114, facilitated by the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation (Amendment) Bill, 2023

 

Delimitation Commission: Appointment: The Commission is appointed by the President of India and works in collaboration with the Election Commission of India. Composition: Retired SC judge Chief Election Commissioner Respective State Election Commissioners Functions: To determine the number and boundaries of constituencies to make the population of all constituencies nearly equal. To identify seats reserved for Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes, wherever their population is relatively large. Powers: In case of a difference of opinion among members of the Commission, the opinion of the majority prevails. The Delimitation Commission in India is a high-power body whose orders have the force of law and cannot be called in question before any court.

 

What was the Special Status of J&K?

About:

• On August 5, 2019, the President of India, exercising the powers granted by Article 370(1) of the Constitution, issued the Constitution (Application to Jammu and Kashmir) Order, 2019. Through this, the Government of India has enacted amendments to Article 370 itself, not revoking it. Consequently, the relationship between the state of Jammu and Kashmir and the Indian Union has undergone significant changes
• Earlier, on 17^thOctober 1949, Article 370 was added to the Indian constitution, as a ‘temporary provision’, which exempted Jammu & Kashmir, permitting it to draft its own Constitution and restricting the Indian Parliament’s legislative powers in the state.
• It was introduced into the draft constitution by N Gopalaswami Ayyangar as Article 306 A

Article 370: §  The Constituent Assembly of Jammu & Kashmir had the authority to recommend which articles of the Indian Constitution should be applicable to the state. After drafting the state’s constitution, the J&K Constituent Assembly was dissolved. Clause 3 of Article 370 grants the President of India the power to amend its provisions and scope.   §  Article 35A, originating from Article 370, was introduced through a Presidential Order in 1954 based on the recommendation of the J&K Constituent Assembly. It empowers the Jammu & Kashmir legislature to define the permanent residents of the state along with their special rights and privileges. Article 35A is found in Appendix I of the Constitution of India.   §  Various states have different constitutional guarantees, and these are codified in Articles 371, 371A-I for states such as Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, and those in the North East.

 

Path forward for Jammu and Kashmir:

• A 10-year strategy focusing on 3Es (education, employment, and employability) is essential for the upliftment of Kashmir.
• The plan for achieving ‘zero-terror incidents’ in J&K, initiated in 2020, is expected to succeed by 2026.
• The Gandhian principles of non-violence and peace should be embraced to address the legitimacy crisis in Kashmir.
• The government can address challenges arising from the changes in Article 370 by implementing a comprehensive outreach program for all Kashmiris.
• In this context, Atal Bihari Vajpayee’s vision of Kashmiriyat, Insaniyat, and Jamhooriyat (inclusive culture, humanitarianism, and democracy) for a Kashmir solution should be a fundamental aspect of the reconciliation efforts in the region